8. PRACTICAL EXAMINATIONS AT SENIOR SECONDARY LEVEL IN SCHOOLS
Practical Examinations in Chemistry (and other science subjects) at the G.C.E. (Advanced Level) examination (which determines admission to Sri Lankan Universities) were abolished 25 years ago on a political decision made by the Government; this was also apparently to provide equal opportunity and access to the rural child. A substitute in the form of continuous assessment of practicals, though promised, was not provided or ever seriously attempted. As a result, this examination has become a rote learning exercise in which practical competency in chemistry (or any other science subject) is not necessary. Consequently, we today have a situation, in which practical work is hardly done even in schools where good laboratories exist. Distinctions in Chemistry are being given to students who have never entered a laboratory or touched a burette or used a pipette. This excessive dependence on theory and memory has helped in no small measure the wide-spread development of money making tuition classes in which, students are taught how to pass examinations and obtain the extra mark required to enter a more popular stream of study such as medicine. While it is impossible to unscramble an already scrambled egg, it is absolutely essential in the interests of chemical education that a motivating factor be introduced into Sri Lanka's secondary educational scenario to compel students and in particular teachers to pay more importance to carrying out practical work. Only then will students be able to appreciate and enjoy experimental sciences such as chemistry and prevent teachers from converting black board science to a fine art.
9. EXPANSION OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN SRI LANKA
At the higher educational level, Sri Lanka had a single University College from 1921 preparing undergraduates for London University examinations. The courses in Chemistry consisted of two programmes. The first programme led to the three year B.Sc. General degree offering three science subjects and the other programme led to the B.Sc. Special (Honours) degree of a total of 4 years duration. The special degree consisted of a specialised subject and a subsidiary subject, upto General degree level.
The University College was transformed into an autonomous and indigenous University of Ceylon in 1942 and the students of the former University College sat the degree examinations of the University of Ceylon for the first time in 1943. Until the early fifties, practical work in the Chemistry Department was provided only in Organic and Inorganic Chemistry.
With increasing numbers entering secondary schools in the fifties, the pressure for increased University education grew. Political & cultural pressure forced the transformation of two Buddhist centres of learning (Pirivenas) to two new Universities in the early sixties; unfortunately, both these universities came to be set up within a few miles of Colombo thereby not easing the pressure for regional expansion. The first such (regional) expansion in the area of science education came only with the establishment of the second faculty of Science of the University of Ceylon in the central highlands at Peradeniya. With this campus granted full University status in 1967, Sri Lanka had four Universities offering science degrees by the end of the sixties. However, only the Universities at Colombo & Peradeniya offered the 4 year Special (Honours) Degree in Chemistry.
However, by the middle seventies, another University was established in Jaffna and by the early eighties two more Universities had been created in the South and East. Sri Lanka thus had seven conventional science faculties, all offering Chemical education by the early eighties. The Open University of Sri Lanka, also offering the 3 year B.Sc. Degree was created around the same time with the result that Sri Lanka had eight Science Faculties by 1985 and no less than six of them were offering the B.Sc. Special Degree in Chemistry.
Unfortunately, the proliferation of Universities could not be matched by a corresponding increase of sufficient resources and funding. Since the quality of the B.Sc. degree could not be sacrificed, this caused immense pressure to an already over burdened University system. Fortunately, the Government took a policy decision to consolidate rather than proliferate Universities thereafter. As a result, no more Universities were established in the next decade.
That non proliferation policy has now again changed with three more Universities established in the South Eastern, North Central and South Western Provinces. The report (1996) on the National Policy for Higher Education however recommends that the ability of a University to attract and retain high quality staff, maintenance of linkages with other organizations and the effect of a university on the economic activities of its locality are concerns of much higher priority than the convenience of a small fraction of its student population. The report also recommends that in locating a national university a balance must always be struck between the need for a quiet and uncongested atmosphere based on educational considerations and the need for proximity to a relatively better developed urban centre on considerations of viability. The recent ad-hoc expansions of University education in Sri Lanka have unfortunately taken place quite contrary to the declared recommendations in this policy.
10. ADMISSION OF STUDENTS TO CONVENTIONAL
UNIVERSITIES IN SRI LANKA
The twin policies of free education and education in the mother tongue increased Sri Lanka's literacy rate to nearly 90% by the early sixties. More and more students, particularly from the rural areas, were qualifying to enter the Universities. The number seeking admission to courses in Medicine, Engineering & Science increased by leaps and bounds since pursuing an Arts degree was considered non-prestigious and non-employment oriented.
In order to keep up to these pressures and demands, political pressure came to influence the mechanism of selection for University admission in the early sixties. The viva-voce examination of students who qualify for admission was dispensed with and admissions came to be determined entirely on the university entrance examination marks. With student numbers in schools as well as university numbers increasing in the sixties, the university entrance examination conducted by the University of Ceylon was replaced by a General Certificate of Education (Advanced Level) Examination conducted by the state Department of Examinations. In 1971, the practical examination for science disciplines was abolished overnight purportedly in order to minimise injustice to rural students, who did not have the benefit of good science laboratories. The effect of this shortsighted measure is seen today, 25 years later, when practical work is hardly conducted even in urban schools with excellent laboratories. Quite ironically, whatever practical work is done is in schools is in rural schools, in which laboratories are of a lower standard. By the seventies, standardisation and District quotas were progressively introduced in order to increase the number of students entering the University from rural districts.
As a result of these ad-hoc changes, practically all which have been introduced without planning or fore-thought but due to sudden impulses and political pressures, merit as the only criterion for University admission has been dispensed with. The present system of admission to the science based streams is determined on the results of the G.C.E. (A Level) Examination as follows :
40% on absolute Merit based on the aggregate of raw marks.
55% on a District quota based on the district resident population, the places within each district being allocated on merit.
5% based on a special additional allocation for educationally disadvantaged districts.
The tragedy resulting from the operation of such a system for the past 20 years has been that there is a wide disparity between the cut-off mark in different districts; the system is very unfair by disadvantaged students in educationally disadvantaged schools in educationally advantaged districts; no concession is given to first time students as compared to repeat students; the determination of the district has given rise to considerable problems, errors, dishonesty and delays. Since admission is based on a mere aggregation of marks, tuition classes conducted by a range of money making teachers are very popular and highly patronised and provide not education but rote learning in order to get the extra mark that will determine university entry. These tuition classes have developed black-board science to a fine art; parents have become conditioned to be convinced that their children must attend these tuition classes at any cost if they are to see their children enter the portals of a University.
Several review committees have strongly recommended that such an admission scheme is counter-productive as far as the development of science teaching in the rural areas is concerned. They have recommended a pre-announced annual increase in the absolute merit quota so that within a specified number of (7 - 10) years, all admissions will be on absolute merit so that science teaching facilities will be consciously and deliberately increased during this period in the disadvantaged schools and rural districts. These committees have also recommended an Aptitude test that will determine University admission from amongst those who qualify at the initial GCE (A/Level) Examination. Successive Committees have also recommended a concession to first time students as compared to repeaters for obviously educationally sound reasons. Unfortunately, the recommendations of several committees have not been acted upon with the result that while we have an admission system in which though the very best are not left out, one cannot say that at the lower end of the scale, an equitable system operates. The system has created enormous pressures, tribulations and anxieties to students and parents alike. A negative consequence has been that some of the qualified students who are left out of the Sri Lankan system but have adequate finances are able to go abroad, spending an enormous amount of Sri Lankan foreign exchange and obtain education in a setting, culture and environment alien to Sri Lanka. This problem has not been analytically dealt with by any of the relevant authorities.
Approximately 175,000 students sit the GCE (Advanced Level) Examination every year but only 50,000 obtain the current stipulated minimum overall average of 45% to enter a university. The existing conventional Universities admit approximately 10,000 students annually. Only 2% of the youth in the age group of 20-24 years gain admission to Universities. This is low by any standards since the average figure for the developing countries is 3%. There is therefore both a pressure and a need for expansion of Higher Education. However, the two important constraints to such an expansion are lack of resources and the lack of employment opportunities for graduates in a number of fields including several scientific areas.
At present, 95% of the budgetted expenditure for conventional Universities comes from the government. Both the enhancement of this grant and its better utilisation by the universities are essential to provide a quality education. Staff salaries consume 75% of the recurrent grant. Government expenditure on higher education has remained constant during the last few years at around 0.4% of GDP and 14-15% of the total allocation for the educational sector. The National Policy on Higher Education, while recognizing that a significant increase of funds for higher education is not feasible due to current financial constraints, recommends an annual increase of 0.05% of GDP so that by the year 2001 the allocation will be at least 0.6% of the GDP.
11. DEMAND FOR CHEMICAL EDUCATION
Greater social prestige and the potential to obtain more money make many secondary school students aspire for a careers such as Medicine or Commerce rather than Chemistry. Since admission to such popular courses is very competitive, even though largely on a district quota basis, students often repeat the GCE (Advanced Level) examination even thrice with a view to obtain the extra mark required for selection for such courses. Over the past 30 - 40 years, this tendency has to a great extent increasingly deprived the sciences (including Chemistry) from drawing on the best talent available among school leavers to pursue tertiary chemical education. The only redeeming feature, as far as chemical education is concerned is the fact that once chosen for a basic science education, the option of many university undergraduates for many years, has been to read for an Honours Degree in Chemistry. It is in this context that Chemistry occupies a central position in the Sri Lankan educational scenario. This, no doubt, is due to the greater employment and career re-directional prospects available for chemistry graduates, who are more widely in demand particularly in the industrial and service sectors. Job opportunities for Chemistry graduates however also appear to be getting smaller, partly due to the larger numbers of such graduates now being produced. However, it is comforting to note that the centrality and versatility of Chemistry is finding welcome expression in Chemistry graduates accepting employment in apparently unrelated areas such as banking, accountancy, management and administration. Most of us would agree that Chemistry as a discipline provides a well balanced foundation for anyone desirous of diverting to other areas, even though not strictly within the ambit of Chemistry.
12. ALTERNATIVE OPPORTUNITIES FOR CHEMICAL EDUCATION IN SRI LANKA
The need to provide higher educational opportunities for those employed particularly in middle level scientific fields (such as laboratory technicians), late developers, others who were unable to pursue such opportunities earlier on in life and school leavers has become increasingly necessary and relevant in modern times. Numerous are the instances where persons given such a second chance have excelled and proved their worth as students suitable to pursue chemical education at a tertiary level. In respect of scientific (& chemical) education in Sri Lanka, I am happy to have been associated with two such instances, both of a pioneering nature. I describe them below; they are indicative of positive endeavours that have enabled solutions to be found to problems affecting chemical education in Sri Lanka.
12.1. Provision of Alternatives to Conventional University Education
The opening of the Open University of Sri Lanka in 1980 to cater to adults and the employed provided an alternative to the highly competitive and pressurized conventional university system. The Open University of Sri Lanka has adopted the Open Entry philosophy and Distance Teaching methodology to provide tertiary education leading to Certificates, Diplomas and Degrees in a variety of fields.
As far as Chemical Education is concerned, Chemistry is one of the seven disciplines available to students following the B.Sc. Degree programme at the Open University of Sri Lanka. This programme was the first degree level programme to be offered and has attracted a wide clientele of students. School leavers, who have been unable to enter the highly competitive conventional university system have also found an alternate opening at the Open University of Sri Lanka. The adoption of the distance learning methodology and the levy of modest tuition fees to cover about one third the cost of the programme (the balance two thirds coming from the Government) have enabled chemical education to be imparted in a novel and non conventional manner to students following the B.Sc. Degree programme. The twelfth intake will enter in 1997. A four academic year B.Sc. (Special) Degree programme is presently being planned; the launch of that programme will enable the seventh special degree course in Chemistry to be available in Sri Lankan Universities. Foundation courses provided by the Open University of Sri Lanka enable persons who do not have the necessary entry qualifications to enter the degree programme, to obtain equivalent qualifications at the Open University of Sri Lanka to enable them to be admitted to the degree level programme.
12.2. The Institute of Chemistry, Ceylon and Chemical Education
12.2.1. The Institute (I.Chem.C)
The Chemical Society of Ceylon (founded 1941) is the oldest (pure) scientific body in Sri Lanka. It functioned as a learned society for thirty years and amongst its principal achievements was the sponsoring of the formation of the multi-disciplinary Sri Lanka Associations for the Advancement of Science in 1944. With the passage of time, the membership of the Chemical Society of Ceylon realised that the rapid growth of Chemistry, both as a science as well as a profession, necessitated the transformation of this society to an expanded professional body with wider objectives, powers and functions.
The Institute of Chemistry, Ceylon was therefore established in 1971 (as the successor to the 30 year old Chemical Society of Ceylon) for the general advancement of the science and practice of Chemistry. The Institute is a learned society catering to the chemical sciences as well as a professional, qualifying and examination body looking after and responsible for the maintenance and enhancement of the profession of Chemistry in Sri Lanka. The Institute was incorporated by Act of Parliament No. 15 of 1972. Among the aims & objectives prescribed in the Act are :
(i) to promote and advance the science of Chemistry and its applications in Sri Lanka (ii) to promote the acquisition, dissemination and interchange of chemical knowledge by providing a forum for the presentation of original communications and discussions thereon, establishing and maintaining libraries and publishing matters of interest to the profession of chemistry. (iii) to promote education in chemistry at all levels (iv) to promote, encourage and foster original research in Chemistry. (v) to conduct or provide for the conduct of the qualifying examinations for all grades of membership of the Institute and to promote, provide or approve courses of study for such examinations. (vi) to conduct or provide for the conduct of examinations for the award of Diplomas, Certificates and other distinctions, in such branches of Chemistry as the Institute may from time to time deem necessary and to prescribe, approve a provide courses of study for such examinations.The formation of the Institute of Chemistry, Ceylon in this manner can be likened to the subsequent formation of the Royal Society of Chemistry by the unification and amalgamation of the Chemical Society of UK and the Royal Institute of Chemistry in 1981.
The Institute of Chemistry, Ceylon maintains very close links with the Sri Lanka Section (founded 1953) of the Royal Society of Chemistry, UK and is a member of the Organisation of Professional Associations of Sri Lanka It is a founder member of the Federation of Asian Chemical Societies (founded 1979) and is an observer member of the International Union of Pure & Applied Chemistry.
The Institute of Chemistry, Ceylon was declared as an approved charity for income tax purpose in 1980. It continues to receive a small annual grant from the Government of Sri Lanka. All income received by the Institute are exempted from the levy of income tax under the Inland Revenue Act.
12.2.2. Non-formal Educational Programmes sponsored by the Institute
Non formal educational programmes have been regularly organized by the Institute (and its predecessor) from 1941 at various levels. These have included lectures, symposia, exhibitions, and school essay competitions. Recent exhibitions have been on the topics "Chemistry, Industry and the Citizen" in 1983, "Chemistry in Everyday life" in 1985 and "Chemistry -Industry Interaction" in 1994.
Mindful of the paucity of adequate training programmes in Chemistry at the post-graduate level, the Institute has conducted "summer school" type workshops at suitably identified locations in selected fields such as Separation Processes, Biochemical Separation Methods, Spectroscopy, Instrumental Methods, Analytical Chemistry Techniques etc.
From 1986, an annual feature of the Institute activities has been the Inter Schools' Chemistry Quiz Competition conducted on a provincial basis. This competition has provided an opportunity for senior Chemistry students in schools to enhance their chemical knowledge in a spirit of friendly competition. Through the Committee for the Popularization of Chemistry, the Institute also organizes for school children regional programmes in chemistry encompassing 'chemistry magic-shows' and lectures, all of which have gone a long way to popularize chemistry among school children.
The Institute has unfortunately not been requested by the relevant authorities nor it has been able to provide any direct input into the growth and modification of Chemistry curricula in schools and universities. However, it has attempted over the years to emphasize its professional monitoring role in chemical education by providing a forum for school teachers, university chemistry academics and the Public to get together and discuss common issues. Some of the topics of discussion at these for were "The teaching of Chemistry in Pre-University classes", "Teaching of Undergraduate Chemistry in Sri Lanka" and "New Trends in Tertiary Chemical Education in Sri Lanka". However such inputs are grossly inadequate to make an effective impact into the area of Chemical Education in Sri Lanka; it falls on to our Institute to formulate alternative formal strategies to remedy the situation.
12.2.3. Formal Education Programmes sponsored by the Institute
12.2.3.1. Laboratory Technicians Certificate Course
The Institute noted and recognized at its inception that the educational aspect should be given the highest priority in its programme of work. In particular, the Institute noted the complete absence of any form of formal training in scientific fields for middle level laboratory technicians in Sri Lanka. A very large number of such personnel were however employed in chemical and other allied laboratories in several institutions (including government departments, research institutions and the private sector). Therefore, the Institute lost no time in formulating an eighteen month course and arranging for its conduct in a leading private educational institution in Colombo - Aquinas College of Higher Studies. The course was carefully organized to train expertise in support of programmes involving chemical analysis and research. Admission to the course is open to laboratory technicians as well as those possessing specified requirements at the GCE (Ordinary Level) examination.
The first 350 hours of the course consist of a common core of subjects such as basic chemistry, basic analytical chemistry, basic biological chemistry, statistics, chemical technology, laboratory practice and food analysis. For the final 100 hours of study the students have the option of choosing one of three specialized subjects - food and microbial chemistry, advanced analytical chemistry and industrial chemistry.
The course has been conducted annually without a break and the 25th of such courses is due to commence in mid 1997. This is the only such course in the basic sciences in Sri Lanka. Nearly 500 technicians have been produced in the courses completed so far. All of them are elligible to become TECHNICIAN members of the Institute of Chemistry, Ceylon. After three years of practical experience in a recognised institution, one could present a dissertation for the award of the Laboratory Technicians Diploma in Chemistry.
The Institute has been greatly strengthened by the recognition received for this course from a number of institutions, both in the public and the private sectors. A large number of such employers pay the tuition fees of their employees and give incremental and other benefits on successful completion of the course. Increasing numbers of employees now specify the possession of the laboratory technician's certificate in Chemistry as an elligibility requirement for recruitment to the technician grade.
12.2.3.2. Graduateship Programme in Chemistry
The employment potential of Chemistry Special (Honours) graduates in such that the demand far outweighs the supply. Relative to the other scientific disciplines (such as Physics, Botany, Zoology and Mathematics) the demand for chemistry graduates is extremely high. Chemistry is also the most popular subject amongst these scientific disciplines in Sri Lankan Universities.
While increased development oriented activities consequent on the liberalization of the economy, privatization & the development of free trade zones have increased the demand for Chemistry Special graduates; the position has been further aggravated by the Brain Drain to developed countries as well as the Middle East. I also see as a welcome new development, in the tendency of some of these graduates to seek job opportunities in rapidly growing areas such as the financial (accountancy/banking) and commercial sectors.
Despite the increase in the number of Sri Lankan Universities in the past 25 years and the gradual increase in the number of students selected to do a special chemistry course at conventional universities, the output of about 75-80 Chemistry special graduates continued to be much lower than that required by the expanding Sri Lankan economy. Lack of adequate finance, resources, buildings and personnel have prevented the state financed universities in Sri Lanka from increasing this output in any substantial manner. Establishment of private universities has also not made much progress due to their political sensitive nature and the one exceptionally bad single experience in the unsuccessful attempts to establish a Private Medical College in the early eighties.
The Institute of Chemistry, Ceylon was sharp enough to recognize and to some extent anticipate these developments during the late seventies. The Institute recognized quite clearly the inability of the state sponsored free education system to continue to meet all the graduate man power needs Sri Lanka. It was in this context and in an earnest desire to make in a meaningful way a positive contribution towards satisfying a much felt national need and demand in Sri Lanka that the Institute took a big bold step forward to organize, sponsor and conduct graduateship courses at a level equivalent to a 4 year special Honours Degree of a University.
The Institute's graduateship programme while been primarily directed at those who were employed at the middle level such as technicians who could better their promotional and career redirectional prospects. Late developers are also given another opportunity. Those, who for economic or other reasons, were unable to avail themselves of the openings they had at the end of their secondary school careers, were given a repeat opportunity. Simultaneously, we were also able to satisfy the desires of many school leavers, who though qualified for conventional University admission, were denied the opportunity due to the severe competition to enter conventional universities by giving them a further chance to pursue an equivalent course in Chemistry without migrating to foreign climes and at much lower cost. Admission requirements to the Institute Graduateship programme are similar to those for the Open University of Sri Lanka and for Sri Lankan University external degrees; those with the minimal qualifications are eligible to register unlike the higher requirements imposed for admission to conventional Universities. A large number are therefore given the opportunities to proceed to higher education.
The Institute's direct involvement at tertiary level chemical education signified a decisive land-mark in Sri Lanka on the one hand and in the life of a professional Institute on the other hand. The course structured to a fair extent on the model of the Graduateship Examinations conducted by the Royal Society of Chemistry, UK has been available uninterrupted from 1979. Since the Institute has no permanent buildings of its own, it makes use of the laboratories and lecture halls of a premier private secondary school in the suburbs of Colombo. The course is conducted at weekends for the benefit of employed students. In the absence of any other income, tuition fees levied from students have to finance the entire programme but are very modest & reasonable even by Sri Lankan standards. The current (1996) cost for the full (4 year) programme inclusive of practicals is around US $ 600.
A welcome feature in the graduateship courses run by the Institute has been our ability to drew on Chemistry experts from a number of Universities and research institutions who have specialised knowledge in their respective fields to conduct lectures for the students. Institute Graduateship students therefore have the unique benefit of a wider spectrum of qualified experts than would be possible in any single University in Sri Lanka. All Institute courses are conducted in the English medium, since the Institute firmly holds the view as a matter of basic policy that the teaching and learning of science can be conducted in a satisfactory manner for the long term benefit of students only in a recognized international language. The Institute graduate chemists are therefore the only chemists produced in Sri Lanka who have had their entire higher education completely in English.
All question papers and answer scripts are moderated by external examiners presently from the University of Sussex. Since the first batch of 4 graduate Chemists were produced in 1984, a total of about 125 graduate chemists from thirteen batches have passed out and are making a distinct contribution to the life of the nation. About 35 of them have obtained post-graduate (M.Sc/M.Phil) degrees from Universities in Sri Lanka, UK and the USA. At least one of them has obtained a Doctoral degree and at least five more are presently reading for their Doctorates in the USA and elsewhere. Those who satisfactorily complete the Graduateship examinations of the Institute obtain automatic exemption from Graduate Membership of the Royal Society of Chemistry, UK.
The course content and structure of the Graduateship Course are revised from time to time to take into account modern developments and maintain the high standard and level of the programme. The Institute is distinctly proud of its achievement in fulfilling a long felt need by the conduct of the graduateship programmes which have now gone on for 19 years.
13. STATISTICS OF CHEMISTS PRODUCED BY SRI LANKAN UNIVERSITIES (1944 - 1988)
A study conducted by me a few years ago revealed the following data :
University (Period) Total With (First & Second) Class Ceylon (1944 - 1967) 246 122 (47%) Peradeniya (1968 -1988) 406 211 (51%) Colombo (1969 - 1988) 234 192 (82%) Sri Jayawardenapura (1976 - 1988) 50 35 (70%) Jaffna (1979 - 1989) 73 60 (82%) Kelaniya (1981 - 1988) 39 29 (75%) ------------------------------------ Total for Sri Lanka (1944 - 1988) 1048 649 (62%) ====================================Overall Summary by percentages is indicated below :
University 1st 2nd Total (First and Ordinary Class Class Second Class) Pass Ceylon 5% 42% 47% 48% Peradeniya 5% 47% 52% 48% Colombo 18% 64% 82% 18% Sri Jayawardenapura 10% 60% 70% 30% Jaffna 14% 68% 82% 18% Kelaniya 5% 69% 74% 26% ---------------------------------------------------- National Average 9% 53% 62% 38% ====================================================
14. EMPLOYMENT PATTERN OF SRI LANKAN CHEMISTS
A survey & study conducted by the author a few years ago revealed that the percentage wise distribution of chemists in Sri Lanka was as follows :
State & Semi-state sectors : Activity which best describing their present employment
Education (Universities) 31% Education (Schools) 1% Research & Development (excluding Universities) 20% Other Scientific Institutions 12% Manufacturing industry 7% Service Oriented (eg. electricity/water) 4% State Sector administration 4% Others 2% ----- 81%Private Sector : Activity which best describes their present employment
Manufacturing industry (other than chemicals & Petroleum) 8% Manufacturing industry (chemicals & petroleum) 5% Private Sector Administration 4% Research & Development 1.5% Others 0.5% ------ 19% ----- 100% =====The contrast in employment pattern in respect of research and development on the one hand and manufacturing industry on the other hand, between the state and private sectors is very significant.
The distribution of Chemists in terms of their declared primary area in present employment was as follows :
Education 21% Rubber 4% Analytical 9% Industrial 4% Organic 6% Environment 4% Biochemistry 6% Organic Coatings & Paints 3% Pharamaceulicals 5% Forensics 21/2% Food & Beverage 5% Administration 2% 45 other areas < 3%It should be noted that for the purpose of this survey & study, data was collected from Chemists defined as those who possessed at least an Honours (Special) Degree in Chemistry or equivalent qualifications or a Postgraduate degree in a branch of chemical sciences.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to acknowledge very helpful comments & material received from Prof. Chandra Gunawardena, Professor of Education at the Open University of Sri Lanka and Mr. Merril E.C. Fernando, former Principal of a leading senior secondary school in Sri Lanka.
REFERENCES
1. J N O Fernando: Devanathan Commemoration Lecture: "Chemists for the Profession of Chemistry - their education, training and employment, Chemistry in Sri Lanka 9 (2) (1992), Pages 29 - 38.
2. Ministry of Education & Higher Education, Sri Lanka; Educational Statistics of Sri Lanka (1992).
3. National Education Commission of Sri Lanka : National Policy for Higher Education in Sri Lanka (1996).
Back to Chemical Education in Ajia Pacific Home Page