Chemical Education in Japan Version 2

Chapter 4 TEACHER TRAINING--PAST AND PRESENT

4.1 Teacher Training System before World War II (Tadashi Hasegawa)
4.2 Teacher Training System after World War II (Tadashi Hasegawa)
4.3 Increase of Upper Secondary School Students (Tadashi Hasegawa)
4.4 Increase of College/University Students (Tadashi Hasegawa)
4.5 Gakugei University and the Faculty of Education (Tadashi Hasegawa)
4.6 Graduate Schools for Teachers and Expected-Teachers (Nobutaka Itoh and Yukio Masui)
4.7 Examination for Service for Teachers--Condition of Obtaining Teaching Position (Yukio Masui)
4.8 Part-time Teachers (Yukio Masui)
4.9 In-Service Training of Teachers (Yukio Masui)
4.10 School Teaching as a Profession --the View of the Younger Generation (Tsutomu Koide)

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4.1 TEACHER TRAINING SYSTEM BEFORE WORLD WAR II

The Education Code (Gakusei) was decreed by the Meiji Restoration Government in 1872, and the common school system, which is the base of the modern Japanese school system, was started. The Code was modeled after the European and American education system under the civilization policy of the government. The policy was to be the moving power leading the Japanese society from feudal to modern. The Meiji Government aimed to increase national power by enforcing the Code simultaneously throughout the country and developing civilization and capitalism.

According to the Education Code the entire country was divided into 8 large school districts, each of which was subdivided into 32 middle school districts. Each middle district consisted of 210 small districts. The Code also stipulated that a university, a middle school, and an elementary school should be established in each large, middle, and small district, respectively. The elementary school consisted of two portions, lower (age from 6 to 9) and upper (age from 10 to 13). Eight years of education in the elementary schools was compulsory as a general rule. The middle school also consisted of two parts, lower (age from 14 to 16) and upper (age from 17 to 19). The common school system at that time was a single-track ladder type 8-6 (or 4-4-3-3) system promoting from the elementary to the middle school. Subjects to be taught in the schools and class hours for the subjects were determined by laws. The civilization policy of the government attached great importance to subjects in natural science. Chemistry was started from the upper elementary school.

Table 4.1.1 Changes of Numbers of Elementary Schools, Teachers, Students, and Percentage of School Attendance. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- Year Elementary School Teacher Student Attendance/% --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1873 12,597 27,107 1,182,968 28.1 1875 24,303 44,565 1,848,080 35.2 1877 25,459 59,825 2,094,298 39.9 1879 28,025 71,046 2,210,607 41.2 1881 28,742 76,618 2,413,586 43.0 1883 30,156 91,636 3,037,270 51.0 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------

On enforcement of the Education Code, establishment of elementary schools (53,760 were planned) and training of teachers for the schools were urgent problems. (cf. Table 4.1.1) In 1872 a National Normal School (Shihan Gakko), an institution for teacher training, was established in Tokyo under the direct control of the Ministry of Education. The Ministry decreed that one foreigner should be employed as a professor in the Normal School, 24 students would be enrolled at the school, 90 students (whose ages were nearly 20) would be entered as elementary students, and all lectures for the 24 students should be done according to the teaching procedure in foreign elementary schools. The government supplied the 24 students in the Normal School with money for school expenses, however, they were obligated to be teachers after graduation in return.

M. M. Scott (American, 1843 - 1922) was employed as a professor in the Normal School from the South Branch School of University (Daigaku Nankou), which derived from an Institute of Foreign Study (Yougakusho) established in 1855 and changed its name and organization several times and finally became a university according to the Education Code, and G. Tsuboi was employed as an English translator. Tsuboi translated all Scott's lectures in English into Japanese for the students. The students learned instruction techniques and methodology by giving practice lectures identical to Scott's yet conducted in Japanese to the elementary students. This was to be the base of the later teacher training system, especially for teachers in elementary schools. Most textbooks and teaching materials used in the Normal School were imported from the U. S.

An attached elementary school was established in 1873 and children of school age were entered. Then, the irrationality of teaching to sham elementary students whose ages were nearly 20 was removed. The Ministry of Education set up the textbook editorial office in the Normal School. From 1873 to 1874 six National Normal Schools and Tokyo Women's Normal School (Jyoshi Shihan Gakko) were established. However, adequate numbers of teachers to fulfill the Education Code's requirements could not be secured because the teacher training system began at the same time the Code was enforced. The first graduating students from the Normal School, who had learned from Scott, were warmly received as apostles of elementary education, and were employed as teachers at Normal Schools in local areas and teacher training centers for elementary education (Schou Gakko Kyouin Denshujyo). They played an active part in the training and retraining of elementary teachers in local areas. Most teachers in elementary schools at that time had previously taught at private elementary schools (Terakoya), and had scant knowledge of modern education methodology.

Although the Education Code greatly influenced later Japanese modern school systems, it was impossible to achieve the complete enforcement of the Code because it did not fit the actual conditions of Japanese society at that time. The society was still in a pre-stage of the Industrial Revolution, so most people attached little importance to an academic career and income was not enough to support an extended period of education. In 1879 the Code was abolished and a new law, the Law of Education (Kyoiku Rei), was promulgated in order to more closely match the education system to peoples needs. Many changes to alleviate problems in the education system were made; for example, the minimum schooling year of compulsory education was shortened, though the 8-6 system was retained. The law was revised several times until the end of World War II, and then the school system changed from a single to a multi-track system. An outline of a typical multi-track system is shown in Fig. 1.2.1.

Only students graduating from Normal Schools were allowed to be teachers as a rule, however, there were exceptions for graduates from universities (Daigaku), high schools (Koto Gakko), technical schools (Koto Senmon Gakko), and Middle Schools (Chu Gakko). It was possible for students in these schools to be teachers without receiving any special teacher training. The Law of the Normal School (Shihan Gakko Rei) was enacted in 1886, and the teacher training system was upgraded and the educational content in the School was enriched, thus the system of the Normal School is considered to have been accomplished in this year. The Law was retained as one of the fundamental laws of the Japanese school system until the end of World War II without significant change. Teacher training in the School, however, was gradually standardized. State textbooks were required for compulsory education from 1902 onward. The education materials gradually swayed toward nationalism, and teachers, who had been educated in the National School to be meek toward state power, acted as lower government officials and taught only contents in the state textbook.

As described above, teacher training in Japan before World War II was primarily done in the Normal Schools. It was characteristic of government policy at the time to offer educational expenses to students on the condition of students becoming teachers after graduation, thus teacher training was strongly controlled by the government, though this was not unique to Japan at that time.

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4.2 TEACHER TRAINING SYSTEM AFTER WORLD WAR II

World War II ended in August, 1945. Proper school education had been completely disrupted during the war, even teachers had been mobilized to fight. Because of this, the number of trained teachers available was severely depleted. People without qualifications were enlisted as teachers. Collective evacuation of elementary students in large cities began in August, 1944. All schools except the National Elementary School were closed from March, 1945. Innovations in the education system in the postwar period must have begun with restoring the system from wartime emergency to normalcy. In January of 1946, the first education mission from the U. S. arrived and began investigating the actual conditions of the education system in Japan. The Cabinet set up a committee on the basis of the report from the mission and allowed the committee to create policies to make innovations in the education system. The Fundamental Law of Education (Kyoiku Kihon Ho), in which the policy of education in Japan and the democratic guide for achievement of the policy were plainly stated, was enacted in 1947. At the same time the Law of School Education (Gakko Kihon Ho) was promulgated; education in elementary (Sho Gakko) and lower secondary schools (Chu Gakko) was made compulsory. The new 6-3-3-4 school system of elementary school, lower secondary school, upper secondary school (Koto Gakko), and university (Daigaku) was established. Technical colleges (Koto Senmon Gakko), 5 years of education for graduate students from lower secondary schools, junior colleges (Tanki Daigaku), and 2 years education for graduate students from upper secondary schools were also established.

The Normal Schools were abolished and the teacher training system was radically altered. The following general rules were established to guide the modern teacher training system:

) Teacher training should be done in general universities and colleges.
) A national university should be established in each prefecture and should have a faculty of education for training of teachers in compulsory education.
) The curriculum for the teacher training must involve subjects meeting the minimum requirements set forth in the Educational Personnel Certification Law (Kyoin Menkyo Ho).
) An interim two-year course for training teachers in compulsory education was created.
The Gakugei University was established as a 4-year university for training teachers in compulsory education. (see Ch. 4.5 for Gakugei University)

The most remarkable change in the modern education system was the introduction of a licensing system for teachers. Before the end of World War II, graduation from a Normal School was, in principle, sufficient qualification for teaching. However, exceptions for graduates from universities, high schools, technical schools, or middle schools were possible so they could become teachers without receiving any special teacher training. This exception was abolished in the new system. When undergraduate students of any general university or college wished to become teachers, they could get a teaching certificate only if they had acquired the designated credits during their schooling and applied for it when they achieved the fundamental qualification necessary for the particular certificate. People who received the certificate were employed as teachers if they passed the examination for service. This new system is set forth in The Educational Personnel Certification Law of 1949. Not only students of Gakugei University but also any other university or college who have the appropriate credits can get certified. This system is called the Open Certification System. Most teachers in elementary and junior high schools, where education is compulsory, graduated from either Gakugei University or the Faculty of Education from other universities. Many teachers in upper secondary schools are from faculties other than education in general universities.

Several revisions in the Certification Law have been made, and subjects and total credits required for getting the teaching certificate have changed. The 1989 revisions provide for three types of teaching certification; 1st class, 2nd class, and special certification. The 1st and 2nd class certification are reserved for graduates from a university and 2 year junior college, respectively. The special certificate is for people who have a master's degree. The basic qualifications and the minimum number of credits to be acquired in university or college are listed in Table 4.2.1.

Table 4.2.1 Fundamental Qualifications and Minimum Number of Credits ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Kinds of Certification Fundamental Minimum Number of Credits of Subjects Qualification -------------------------------------- Teaching Professional Teaching or Education Professional Education ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Elementary School Special Master's Degree 18 41 24 1st Bachelor's Degree 18 41 - 2nd Graduation from 10 27 - Junior College Lower Secondary School Special Master's Degree 40 19 24 1st Bachelor's Degree 40 19 - 2nd Graduation from 20 15 - Junior College Upper Secondary School Special Master's Degree 40 19 24 1st Bachelor's Degree 40 19 - ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Students who wish to be a chemistry teacher at an upper secondary school must acquire the teaching certificate for upper secondary school science. In lower secondary schools, chemistry is not an independent subject but included in the science courses. To be a science teacher at a lower secondary school one must acquire the certificate for junior high school science. On the other hand, the certification for elementary education is not distinguished by subjects because a teacher in an elementary school is in charge of not a subject but a class, and, in general, teaches all kinds of subjects. For the elementary school certificate, each of two credits concerning all nine subjects taught in elementary schools (Japanese, mathematics, science, social studies, life experiences, music, arts, house keeping, and gymnasium) must be taken. Teaching subjects required for acquisition of lower and upper secondary school science certifications are listed in Table 4.2.2 and 4.2.3, respectively.

Table 4.2.2 Teaching Subjects for Acquisition of Certification of Lower Secondary School Science. --------------------------------------------------------------------- Subject Minimum Number of Credits Requireda --------------------------------------------------------------------- Physics 3 Chemistry 3 Biology 3 Earth Science 3 Physical Experimentsb 2 Chemical Experimentsb 2 Biological Experimentsb 2 Earth Science Experimentsb 2 --------------------------------------------------------------------- a: total of 40 credits including above credits are required for 1st class certification and 20 credit for 2nd class certification. b: including practical use of computers.

Table 4.2.3 Teaching Subjects for Acquisition of Certification of Upper Secondary School Science. -------------------------------------------------------------------------- Subject Minimum Number of Credits Requireda -------------------------------------------------------------------------- Physics 4 Chemistry 4 Biology 4 Earth Science 4 Physical Experimentsb Chemical Experimentsb 4 from these experiments Biological Experimentsb Earth Science Experimentsb -------------------------------------------------------------------------- a: total of 40 credits including above credits are required. b: including practical use of computer.

The subjects of professional education in Table 4.2.1 consists of teaching practice and subjects concerning pedagogic and educational psychology, and are listed in Table 4.2.4.
Table 4.2.4  Subjects of Professional Education and Minimum Credits Required for
             Certifications.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                       Minimum Number of Credits Required for 
                                     -----------------------------------------
                                        Elemental      Lower        Upper 
                                          School     Secondary    Secondary
                                                       School       School
                                        ---------    ---------    ---------
  Subject                                    1st     2nd   1st    2nd   1st
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  Essence and Object of Education 
  Mental and Physical Development
        of Students and Process of 
        Education
  Education and Society, Education            12       6     8      6     8
        System, or Educational 
        Management 
  Method and Technique in Education 
        (including Practical Use of  
        Computer and Teaching Material)
  
  Methodology of Teaching                     18      12     2      2     2
  Moral Education                              2       1     2      1     -
  Special Activity                             2       1     2      1     2
  Guidance of Students and Educational
        Consultation                           2       2     2      2     2
  Teaching Practice                            5       5     3      3     3
  Others (Research on Moral Education)         -       -     -      -     2
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Following the course of "Science Education in General", "Methodology for Teaching Chemistry" is provided as one of the required professional courses. Two credits are given for this course. The contents of the course, it is hoped, should be closely related to practical teaching activities. The following is an example of the course plans.

) Orientation (Introduction to the course)
) Philosophy and Aims of Chemistry Teaching in Upper Secondary Schools
) International Trends in Chemical Education
) The Course of Study for Chemistry for Upper Secondary Schools
) How to Teach Chemistry
) Guidance for Chemical Experiments in Schools
) Making Lesson Plans
) Management and Supervision of the Chemical Laboratory, Facilities, Equipment, Science Education Promotion Law
) Evaluation for Learning Chemistry
) Posture of Chemistry Teachers and Their Research on Teaching
) How to Practice Teaching

In this course, the concrete methodological lectures - for instance, how to guide the thinking of lower secondary students after an experiment - are stressed rather than abstract theories. Since the guidance for experiments is very difficult and important, an instructor demonstrates a lot of cautious handling of dangerous or poisonous chemicals. Recently, environmental education in chemistry has been receiving a great deal of attention.

Practice teaching must be the most important course in the professional education credits. At present, the actual guidance is entrusted to teachers of upper secondary schools to which a practicing student is assigned. The majority of general universities provide two weeks for the period of practice though Gakugei and Kyoiku Universities (see Section 4.5) provide three weeks for this purpose. Practicing students stand on the platform almost ten school hours during this period.

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4.3 INCREASE OF UPPER SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

Present upper secondary schools have been established, on the basis of the Law of School Education of 1947, as liberal or vocational schools for 3 years further education after the 9 years compulsory education in elementary (6 years) and lower secondary schools (3 years). In the single line 6-3-3-4 school system, the upper schools have a dual function: as middle schools for preparatory education to students who want to continue on into universities, and as final schools for completing the public school education process of students who wish to begin work immediately after graduation. There are 4-year part-time upper secondary schools for workers. The number of upper secondary schools as of May, 1992 is 5,501 including 1,318 private schools. The percentage of upper school attendance has rapidly increased: 51.5% in 1950, 57.8% in 1960, 70.7% in 1965, 82.1% in 1970, and 95.9% in May. Thus, an education in the upper secondary schools is now almost compulsory. The campaign for giving permission to all who want to enter the schools has been planned. However, one problem is that the number of students quitting upper secondary schools is growing. The increase in students dropping out of school might be due to a false sense of security given by passing the entrance examination of a school on the basis of past achievements in lower secondary schools. Recently, new types of upper secondary schools have been established which are accrediting system schools and schools having special courses of music, gymnasium, or information.

Table 4.3.1 Changes of Number of Upper Secondary Schools, Teachers, and Students. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Year 1960 1970 1980 1991 1992 ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Number of Schools 4598 4798 5208 5503 5501 Number of Teachers (x103) 132 202 244 286 284 Number of Students (x103) 3239 4232 4622 5456 5219 ------------------------------------------------------------------------

Table 4.3.2. Number of Students Quit Upper Secondary School ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Year 1989 1990 1991 ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Number of Students Quitting School 123069 123529 112933 Percentage to Total Number of Students 2.2 2.2 2.1 ------------------------------------------------------------------------

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4.4 INCREASE OF COLLEGE/UNIVERSITY STUDENTS

Most New System Universities (Shinsei Daigaku) were established between 1949 and the early 1950's. There are 4-year universities and colleges and 2-year junior colleges in Japan. There are 2-year master's and 3-year doctoral programs in graduate schools. The total number of universities and colleges as of May, 1992 is 1,114 including National, Prefectural, Municipal Universities or Colleges (139), Junior Colleges (92), and the total number of students reaches approximately 28,177,000 (Table 4.4.1). The percentage of university or college attendance increased rapidly until 1980, and is still increasing though more gradually (Table 4.4.2). Currently, 2 out of 5 people in the 18 to 20 age group are students. The increase in the number of university students started in the 1960's. Though mainly due to government economic policies, the baby boom generation, people who were born after World War II, were beginning to reach university age at that time as well.

Table 4.4.1 Changes in the Number of Universities/Colleges and Junior Colleges, Teachers, and Students. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Year 1960 1970 1980 1991 1992 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Number of Universities/Colleges 245 382 446 514 523 Number of Teachers (x103) 44.4 76.3 103.0 126.4 129.0 Number of Students (x103) 626 1407 1835 2205 2293 Number of Junior Colleges 280 479 517 592 591 Number of Teachers (x103) 6.4 15.3 16.4 20.9 21.2 Number of Students (x103) 83 263 371 504 525 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Table 4.4.2 Changes in University/College Attendance (%) ---------------------------------------------------------- Year 1960 1970 1980 1990 1991 1992 ---------------------------------------------------------- Men 14.9 29.2 41.3 35.2 36.3 37.0 Women 5.5 17.7 33.4 37.4 39.2 40.8 Total 10.3 23.6 37.4 36.3 37.7 38.9 ----------------------------------------------------------
Recently, fundamental innovations affecting the education system in universities and colleges were necessary because education in upper secondary schools became increasingly diverse. A "jumping system" allowing students in 3rd year classes with excellent marks to graduate from 4-year universities or colleges has been introduced.

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4.5 GAKUGEI UNIVERSITY AND THE FACULTY OF EDUCATION

In February of 1947, the Cabinet set up a committee to create a new policy for the postwar education system as described in Ch. 4.2. The committee decided that training of teachers in compulsory education should be done at Gakugei Universities or Faculties of Education in general universities, which would be established for the teacher training, and that prewar Normal Schools should be reorganized into the Gakugei Universities or other school's Faculty of Education. Although the purpose of establishing the Gakugei University is the same as that of the Normal School, the Gakugei University is not a special institute like the Normal School but one of the new system universities. The committee also proposed that the earlier policy of a student receiving school expenses for the Normal School then being obligated to teach after graduation should be abolished.

This committee's policy created a problem concerning not only teacher training but also the wholesale reorganization of new system universities and colleges. The most controversial point concerned the effect of elevating an institute for teacher training up to university level. The Normal Schools had not been on the same level as High Schools, but instead closer to that of Middle Schools for a long time before the war. In July, 1947 the Ministry of Education made a plan containing 11 fundamental rules for the establishment of National Universities, a few of the more important points were: only one National University should be, in principle, established in a prefecture to prevent the concentration of National Universities in large cities, and the university must have a Faculty of Education for teacher training. However, it was difficult to finalize the plan because there weren't enough teachers or facilities of the Normal Schools to create those universities. Therefore, most High Technical Schools with a long-established tradition were opposed to being consolidated with the Normal Schools. Discontent regarding the incorporation with the Normal Schools has created the impression that the Gakugei University and Faculty of Education have been one rank lower than general universities.

After heated debate, a new school system including teacher training in Gakugei Universities and Faculties of Education in general universities was established. However, the Gakugei Universities and the Faculties of Education had the most serious difficulty because the number of candidates applying for the entrance examinations was quite low, and they had other problems concerning teachers and facilities. In 1949 the Universities and the Faculties wanted to have about 25,000 new students in total, however, they received approximately 18,000 candidates for admission and only 14,000 enrolled. Thus, the Universities and the Faculty had only 54% of the students needed, even though the Normal Schools were reorganized into Universities or Faculties in general universities, and were formally of the same rank in the new system universities as High and Technical High Schools. This created the stigma of teacher training universities being perceived as lower-ranked compared to other general universities and faculties.

The unpopularity of teacher training universities at that time was due to the low social standing of teachers. Wages of teachers, especially elementary school teachers, were very low before the end of the World War II. The low wages were due mainly to the Normal School System, especially the duty to become a teacher after graduation. Many good students from poorer families could enroll in the Normal School because they were provided school expenses, however the caveat to this free schooling was the duty to later become a teacher. As long as this system was maintained, the number of teachers needed was guaranteed even though their pay was lower than the average wage.

However, when the Gakugei Universities were established for teacher training as the result of the postwar innovations, the system of providing school expenses leveraged against the duty to become a teacher was abolished. It was an important point in the postwar innovation to the teacher training system to abolish that system and obligation. In 1950 the committee responsible for changing the education system proposed plans to improve the universities and faculties for teacher training, and countermeasures to keep many excellent teachers were introduced. Teachers' wages were increased step by step. Now, the starting salary of teachers is almost equal to that of others. However, the salary gap between teachers and others is still wider when increased service length is factored into the equation.

Eight Gakugei Universities have been established. Linked elementary and lower secondary school relationships for teaching practices have also been created. Some universities have linked upper secondary schools as well. In the latter part of the 1960s, the Gakugei Universities changed their name to Kyoiku Universities except Tokyo Gakugei University.

These universities now offer Master's degrees and contribute to chemical education, for example, by providing in-service training programs for teachers. Facilities in these Universities have been improved step by step. Tokyo Gakugei University has FT- and CW-NMR, ESR, ICP, X-ray Diffraction Apparatus, FT- and ordinary IR, and UV. This university is the largest for teacher training in Japan and has more equipment than the Kyoiku Universities. However, despite these advanced facilities, the ratio of professors to students and the budget of the University are much less than the resources available to general universities. The curriculum for teacher training is developed independently at each university. Chemistry subjects offered by Tokyo Gakugei's training course for prospective lower secondary school teachers are shown in Table 4.5.1 as an example of the curriculum.

Table 4.5.1 Chemistry Subjects Taught for Students in Lower Secondary Teacher Training Course at Tokyo Gakugei University. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Required Subjects: ---------------------- Basic Inorganic Chemistry Basic Organic Chemistry Basic Physical Chemistry Chemical Lab Works Elective Subjects (More than 31 credits must be taken): ----------------------------------------------------------- Analytical Chemistry Coordination Chemistry Aquatic Chemistry Inorganic Synthesis Geochemistry Inorganic Applied Chemistry Radiation Chemistry Organic Chemistry Organic Reaction Mechanisms Chemistry of Organic Reactions Organic Synthesis Biochemistry Polymer Chemistry Chemical Reaction and Concept of Orbital Physical Chemistry Structural Chemistry Quantum Chemistry Surface Chemistry Catalytic Chemistry Chemical Thermodynamics Analytical Experiments Organic Experiments Experiments of Physical Chemistry -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Credit given for all subjects is two.

Most students at teacher training universities plan to teach after graduation, though this is no longer mandatory. They are required to take credits for teacher training, and can receive a teaching certificate when they graduate. Conversely, they cannot graduate from the universities without this certificate. Recently, the number of students expected to enter universities is dropping due to Japan's declining birth rate and aging population. (Table 4.5.2) Nearby elementary schools have been consolidated and less new teachers have been hired due to the decrease in newly enrolled students. Therefore, the number of certified teaching students graduated exceeds the number of jobs currently available.

Table 4.5.2 Change of Population in Japan --------------------------------------------------------------------- Year Total Population Increment Age Population(%) x 103 x 103 0 - 14 15 - 64 >65 --------------------------------------------------------------------- 1988 122,783 519 19.5 69.2 11.2 1989 123,255 472 18.8 69.6 11.6 1990 123,611 419 18.2 69.5 12.0 1991 124,043 432 17.7 69.8 12.6 1992 124,452 409 17.2 69.8 13.0 ---------------------------------------------------------------------

Since the late 1980s, the Gakugei and Kyouiku Universities have changed parts of their education systems, hiring new faculty and creating elective courses not mandatory for receiving the teaching certificate. For example, Tokyo Gakugei University has developed new courses for education specialists in rapidly expanding new curriculum areas, and broader courses for educators as well. The Chemistry Department greatly contributed in creating the new major of Natural and Environmental Science. In summary, the Gakugei and Kyouiku Universities were established as New System Universities after World War II, and will continue to carry out their mission for teacher training. However, the training system in the universities must be reformed, adapting to the changing curriculum and education system in elementary and secondary schools caused by the increasing diversity and personal choices of students.

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4.6 GRADUATE SCHOOLS FOR TEACHERS AND EXPECTED-TEACHERS

Following the amendment of the National School Establishment Law, Hyogo University of Teacher Education was founded in October, 1978, as the first university devoted mainly to in-service teacher education, with unequal emphasis on theory and practice.

Other universities of the same kind, such as Joetsu University and Naruto University of Teacher Education, have also been founded since 1978 as well.

In this report, the author would like to introduce an outline sketch of Hyogo University's program.

The main objective of the Graduate School of Education (Master Course) is to help in-service teachers and recent university graduates to improve their competence in research, teaching and student guidance.

About two-thirds of the 300 graduate students admitted each year are in-service teachers who have at least three years of teaching experience, and who are given a leave of absence on full pay for two years to undertake their studies. As for the qualification for admission of the university, the permission of the local board of education is necessary in the case of school teachers. These incoming teachers are supported financially by both the local government and the Ministry of Education in Japan.

After graduating from their two year master's course, they receive a master's degree and go back to their school. They are expected to foster the good teaching which enables pupils to meet the coming new era.

The University also admits about 200 undergraduate students per year whose major area of study is elementary education.

Graduation from the master's course requires successful completion of more than 34 credits in the subject areas (i.e. Foundation of Education, 2 credits; Educational Administration, 2 credits; Curriculum and Instruction, 2 credits; Counseling and Guidance, 2 credits; Integrated Subjects, 4 credits; Specialized field Major, 6 credits; Educational field, 4 credits; Thesis Seminar, 6 credits; etc.) and furthermore, to pass an examination on the student's thesis work.

The organization of the graduate school of education (master's course) is divided into four main fields, that is, the Field of School Education (Foundation of Education, Educational Administration, Curriculum and Guidance), Field of Early Childhood Education, Field for the Handicapped, and Field of School Subject Education (Language Studies, Social Science, Natural Sciences, Fine Arts and Music, Practical Life Studies).

One notable feature of Hyogo University is the facilities for educational research and for practical training. The Center for School Education Research (CSER) gathers and analyzes data concerning school education, and is also responsible for planning and carrying out both practical teaching for undergraduates and research programs for graduates. Furthermore, they conduct various training programs involving educational technology.

The CSER also tries its best to give graduate students who aspire to become administrators the necessary training, and helps the faculty and students obtain any information on education necessary for their research.

The Center for Practical Education, Research, and Training offers facilities for student self-training in order to develop each student's own musical, artistic, language, or physical-education skills. The Research and Clinical Center for the Handicapped conducts clinical research on the education of handicapped children, and provides practical training for students.

The University Library plays a vital role in academic and educational research activities on campus. In order to facilitate and encourage students and faculty to engage in creative research activities, the library provides ample resources and, if necessary, helps graduate students obtain books and papers by contacting other university libraries in Japan and overseas through the inter-library network searching system.

Attached schools (kindergarten, elementary and secondary schools affiliated with the university) help by providing practical places for educational research for graduate and undergraduate student training.

Table 4.6.1 The Departments with course titles of the Graduate School ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- (Departments) (with course titles) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- Foundations of Education Philosophy and History of Education Sociology of Education Educational Psychology Developmental Psychology ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- Educational Administration Educational System School Administration Social Psychology ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- Curriculum and Instruction Curriculum and Instruction Psychology of Learning ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- Counseling and Guidance Moral Education Vocational Education Social Education Clinical Psychology ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- Early Childhood Education Early Childhood Education Psychology of Preschool Children Curriculum for Early Childhood ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- Education for the Handicapped Education of the Handicapped Psychology of Handicapped Children Development Study of Handicapped Children Clinical Study of Handicapped Children Curriculum and Teaching Method for Handicapped Children ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- Language Studies Japanese Linguistics Japanese Literature Chinese Classics Japanese Language Education English Linguistics English and American Literature English Language Education ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- Social Sciences History Geography Law Political Science Economics Philosophy and Ethics Social Science Education ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- Natural Sciences Algebra Geometry Analytical Chemistry Applied Mathematics Mathematics Education Physics Chemistry Biology Geosciences Natural Sciences Education ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- Fine Arts and Music Instrumental Music Composing and Conducting Music Theory Music Education Drawing, Painting and Printing Sculpture Graphic Design Ceramics and Crafts Theory and History of Art Fine Arts Education ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- Practical Life Studies Physical Education Kinesiology School Health Teaching of Health and Physical Education Electric Engineering Mechanical Engineering Industrial Arts Education Food Science Textile Chemistry and Dyeing Home Management Nursing Housing and Living Environment Home Economics Education -----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Table 4.6.2 The employment of master-course graduates (as of 1 each year) is listed below. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Year 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Elementary Schools 91 78 95 92 90 Lower Secondary Schools 64 60 55 63 76 Upper Secondary Schools 33 39 35 44 51 Kindergartens 6 4 3 1 0 Schools for the Handicapped Children 12 20 16 14 15 Colleges and Universities 2 1 0 0 1 Other Schools 9 5 5 11 9 Other Fields 19 27 28 27 22 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Total Number of Graduates 236 234 237 252 264 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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4.7 EXAMINATION FOR SERVICE FOR TEACHERS --CONDITION OF OBTAINING TEACHING POSITION

Teachers for elementary schools, lower and upper secondary schools are selected from among those who have first obtained a teaching license and then passed the employment examination.

In the public school systems, the number of teachers for each school is determined by the "Number of Teachers Act", a formula based on student levels and amount of classes. Therefore, the number of teachers being employed at the beginning of the new fiscal school year is determined by the number of teachers who have retired in the previous year and the fixed number of teachers required for each school.

Recently, the employment of new teachers is declining due to the rapid decrease in student levels. This means that currently there are too many teachers in relation to the number of students. Changes in the number of teachers employed in each fiscal school year in the Osaka Prefecture are shown below:

Table 4.7.1 The number of teachers employed in the Osaka Prefecture --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Year 93 92 91 90 89 88 87 86 85 84 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Elementary School 350 315 292 233 140 40 100 56 171 183 Lower Secondary School 232 236 179 121 60 67 391 668 1102 1532 Upper Secondary School 146 163 170 145 195 286 386 674 967 965 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The number of science teachers is also shown in Table 4.7.2.
Table 4.7.2 The number of science teachers employed in the Osaka Prefecture. Chemistry teachers in the upper secondary schools are shown below --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Year 93 92 91 90 89 88 87 86 85 84 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Lower Secondary School 15 10 7 12 4 9 56 87 144 201 Upper Secondary School 7 9 16 9 20 36 24 65 104 126 Chemistry 3 3 5 3 5 16 11 32 40 43 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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4.8 PART-TIME TEACHERS

In upper secondary schools, it is a standard that teachers shall teach for 18 class hours per week. However, when many students choose a particular subject that causes a teacher of that subject to work over 18 hours per week, then the excess classes shall be taught by part-time teachers. Part-time teachers are hired not only as science teachers but are hired for other subjects as well.

In the other situations, part-time teachers are also hired to replace teachers currently on maternity leave and absences due to illness.

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4.9 IN-SERVICE TRAINING OF TEACHERS

4.9.1 Introduction
It is essential that in-service training of high school science teachers continually seek to broaden their knowledge and enhance professional growth, and learn to encourage student leadership. This training is quite useful for them because new information related to teaching materials is always necessary for the sake of increasing a teacher's competence. Furthermore, by participating during the in-service training program, teachers can hear the warning bell against allowing their skills to become dulled by the routine of daily teaching. In this section the in-service training carried out in Osaka Prefecture will be described as an example.

The central institution for in-service training is "The Science Education Center". These are provided by the central government for each prefecture. Some science education centers are established locally by certain larger cities. These institutions are founded under "The Law Concerning Organization and Managing of the Local Education Administration" which became effective in 1956. During the initial stages, science education centers were established as independent research institutes, but some years later, several of the newly started centers were incorporated into Combined Education Centers.

The "In-Service Training" program for science teachers is one of the main activities of a science education center. The training is held almost continually throughout the year for elementary, lower secondary, upper secondary, and other school teachers.

The Osaka Prefectural Science Education Center was founded in 1962 on the initiative of the Osaka Prefectural Board of Education for the following purposes: (1) To give in-service training to natural science teachers of elementary, lower and upper secondary schools in Osaka Prefecture. (2) To conduct research on professional and technical matters in the field of education.

Three years later, in 1965, they added in-service training for English teachers, and in 1971, established training for such fields as Japanese language, social studies, mathematics, industrial arts and home-making, information technology and counseling for handicapped children.

At present, The Education Center is an all-round institute for education.

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4.9.2 Work Outline for In Service-Training of Teachers (I)

) For new teachers in kindergarten, elementary, lower and upper secondary schools, including schools for handicapped children.

) For teachers with 5 years experience in elementary, lower and upper secondary schools, including schools for handicapped children.

) Teachers training for specific educational subjects in elementary, lower and upper secondary schools, including schools for handicapped children.

) Others: Educational Planning, Counseling Techniques, Educational Administration, Information Technology (Computer), Educational Technology (Audio-Visual), Assistant principals and principals in elementary, lower and upper secondary schools.

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4.9.3 Work Outline for In-Service Training of Teachers (II)
Activities for the subjects of Natural Science, Japanese Language, Social Studies, Mathematics, English Language, Music, Fine Arts and Crafts, Japanese Calligraphy, Industrial Arts and Home-Making.

The Natural Science Projects in 1993 are shown as an example (Table 4.9.1) :
Table 4.9.1 The Natural Science Projects of In-Service Training at The Education
            Center in the Osaka Prefecture in 1993

(1) Programs of Chemistry Laboratory: (I) Regular Course
----------------------------------------------------------------
  1.For elementary school teachers (3 times) 
       Research on Acidity (Use of Portable Standard Solution)  
       Dissolution and Solution of Alum
       Chemistry of Carbon Dioxide 
  2.For lower secondary school teachers (6 times) 
       Safety in Chemistry Experiments
       Behavior of Ions
       Substances in Environments
       Use of Computer in Chemistry
       Chemistry in Daily Life
  3.For upper secondary school teachers (20 times) 
       General Chemistry
       Quantum Chemistry: Basic Theory and Exercise
       Inorganic Chemistry: Transition Metal Complex
       Organic Chemistry: Organic Reactions, Natural Compounds
       Physical Chemistry: Thermodynamics, Electrochemistry, 
             Chemical Reactions
       Environmental Chemistry: Pollution and Chemistry: 
       Polymer Science: Rubber
       Others: Use of Computer (CAI) , Glass Blowing, 
       Research of Teaching Materials
----------------------------------------------------------------

(2) Programs of Chemistry Laboratory (II): Long Term Course
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
   1.   History of Natural Science Education in Osaka
   2.   States of substances (1) : Gas and Liquid (Boiling point) 
   3.   States of substances (2) : Liquid and Solid (Melting point) 
   4.   Characteristics of Gases: Temperature, Volume, Pressure, Gaseous Reaction
   5.   Glass Blowing
   6.   Elements and Periodic Table
   7.   Amount of Substance: Mole Concept
   8.   Dissolution and Solution
   9.   Molecules and Ions: Electrolyte and Nonelectrolyte
  10.  Acid and Base
  11.  Neutralization and Salt
  12.  Plastic Craft
  13.  Oxidation and Reduction
  14.  Electrolysis and Chemical Cell
  15.  Environmental Chemistry
  16.  Rate of Chemical Reaction (Chemical Kinetics) 
  17.  Chemical Equilibrium
  18.  Chemistry of Organic Compounds (1) : Starch, Oil and Fat
  19.  Chemistry of Organic Compounds (2) : Protein, Essential Oils, Coloring 
       Matters
  20.  Chemistry of Organic Compounds (3) : Plastics, Rubber
  21.  Make of teaching materials
  22.  Research of Subject Study
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(3) Other Course for Teaching Assistants of the Stuff.
--------------------------------------------------------
  1.Making and Use of Crystal Structure Model
  2.Chemistry of Electrolysis
--------------------------------------------------------



Table 4.9.2   Number of Participants in The Natural Science Projects of In-Service
              Training at The Education Center  in the Osaka Prefecture in 1993
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                           Number of Participants
  Subject      Types                  Term              ---------------------------
                                                          Elem.    Lower    Upper
                                                                   Sec.     Sec. 
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
             Regular                 4 days  (May-Dec)    120       --       --
             Course                  6 days  (May-Nov)     --       80       --
                                    20 days  (May-Feb)     --       --       60
             ----------------------------------------------------------------------
             Long Term                 half  (Apr-Sep)     14       11       --
             Course                    year  (Oct-Mar)     14       11       --
             ----------------------------------------------------------------------
             Individual             20 days  (May-Feb)      6        6        6
             Research
             ----------------------------------------------------------------------
  Physics    Summer                  8 days  (Aug)        240       --       --
             Course
  Chemistry  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
             Lectures                1 day   (Jul)        100      100       --
  Biology                            4 days                --       --      200
             ----------------------------------------------------------------------
  Earth      Course for              2 days  (Jun-Oct)     --       --       80
   Science   Teaching Assistants
             ----------------------------------------------------------------------
             Course for              8 days  (Apr-Nov) 
             New Teachers
             ----------------------------------------------------------------------
             Course for 5 years'     5 days  (Sep-Dec) 
             Experience Teachers
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4.10 SCHOOL TEACHING AS A PROFESSION--THE VIEW OF THE YOUNGER GENERATION

4.10.1 Recent Attitudes Towards Teaching as an Occupation
Most students studying at the Faculty of Education know that chemistry occupies a central part of natural science. They are also aware that chemistry must play an important role in assisting future human development. Therefore, some of them hope to become chemistry teachers, despite the difficulty of securing employment in Japan since the declining birthrate in the 1970's has reduced the need for new teachers. Consequently, less than half of the current number of graduates from the Faculty of Education have been hired yearly as teachers.

Another barrier to entry for committed students is the "Examination for Service as Teachers". Students graduating from any department, as well as those from the Faculty of Education, are also allowed to apply for this examination. This examination has been criticized as incapable of fairly judging whether successful candidates understand the practical methods of science education and have good teaching abilities. An examination of this type does not always select candidates who can continue to study their own subject and take care of their children or students properly; it often selects those who are merely good at receiving high marks on examinations, yet possibly having weak education skills. It is necessary to create a method that can select candidates who are keen on education.

The selection process mentioned above has made three types of teachers, perhaps found worldwide. Teachers of the first type are those teachers who sincerely focus their mind upon education. These educators teach chemistry eagerly and carefully, by showing attractive experiments to implant via seduction the spirit of chemistry in students. In order to help the learner understand chemistry further, these teachers willingly undertake extra tasks, in addition to normal classes, instructing students belonging to a school-sponsored "Chemistry / Science Club". Teachers of this type are rather rare, probably less than 20%. Teachers of the second type are those teachers who teach chemistry on the blackboard, rarely do experiments, failing to intrigue students in the early stages of learning and thus having less impact overall. Teachers of the third type are considered "spiritless". They teach chemistry only to get money with a dry-as-dust manner. Their students often develop an aversion to any further study of chemistry. Fortunately, teachers of the third type are few.

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4.10.2 Teaching and Miscellaneous Duties
In Japan, teachers are very busy with their work inside or outside of school. Teachers in primary school teach all subjects for one class and they have from four to six lessons per day. In secondary schools, science teachers give fourteen to sixteen lessons per week. Usually, there is no assistant who helps teachers prepare for experiments in lessons. Therefore, teachers themselves must spend a few hours arranging chemicals and cleaning tools for experiments before and after lessons.

Moreover, teachers have other duties as well. In secondary schools, there are many types of clubs to raise students' interests and abilities. Teachers are asked to be in charge of looking after student organizations. Even if no teacher can find himself able to instruct some club, one of the teachers is asked (or forced) to take care of the club. In some secondary schools, there are a few delinquent students. They not only disturb the lessons but also cause some problems inside or outside of the school. Teachers must lead them to return to an ordinary students' life. The teachers have other duties requiring them to spend their time doing extra work or miscellaneous duties instead of studying their special subject. In some cases the state of affairs in an individual school can be quite distant from that desired by young teachers, souring their outlook and sincere commitment to education.

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4.10.3 Aiming at an Excellent Teacher
Under some of the unfavorable conditions described above, thoughtful teachers can be afraid of losing practical skills vital to education, because it is indispensable to let students learn subjects with confidence. In order to encourage teachers to study chemistry more deeply, and to develop better teaching methods and materials, a group of thoughtful teachers gathered together and created small study/working groups and organized nation-wide conferences on chemistry education.

The Chemical Society of Japan (CSJ) has supported such activities of teacher's study-groups. Furthermore, certain branches of CSJ have held chemistry seminars for teachers, councils on chemistry teaching, and many other programs to help teachers improve their knowledge of chemistry and teaching skills by sharing effective methods for teaching.

These meetings have been well attended with many aiming to become an excellent teacher themselves by gaining skills and improving their reputation with peers. The teachers are becoming more aware that in order to teach well they must understand not only chemistry and nature, they must also know effective teaching techniques that improve the abilities of students. Teachers are making efforts to utilize intelligently the information obtained at these meetings in their daily teaching.

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Chemical Education in Japan (1994)(Copy right 1994, The Chemical Society of Japan)