5.1 CONTINUING PUBLIC AND MASS-MEDIA EDUCATION
Top of Page5.1.1 Social Education
The rise from poverty to relative security in recent decades is reflected in several trends currently affecting Japan. Many people have more spare time, and the significant increase in average span of human life has led to an increased "graying" of the population. Because of these factors, providing a variety of continuing social education opportunities appears to be becoming more important. For these purposes, many kinds of so-called social education systems have been established, some of which are entirely new.(a) Extension Lectures (Kokai Koza)
This is generally presented as a short course, usually taking place within a period of a week or so, organized by universities, junior colleges, or colleges of technology; they offer academic lectures from the university community for the neighboring residents. In 1993, 95 out of 98 national universities organized 842 of these various kinds of extension courses; additionally, 18 and 251 courses were organized by junior colleges and colleges of technology, respectively.(b) Culture SchoolsThere are roughly two categories of courses. One is those aimed at ordinary citizens, including school children, offering contemporary subjects, and is approximately 29% of the total number of 842 courses taught; the other category is professional education subjects. The first category of contemporary subjects offers course titles such as: "Japan in the World" or "Science Technology and the Local Environment" (29% of the total number), cultural lectures (20%, 17% of them are related to natural science), hobbies (10%), sports (13%), or languages (3%). The other category is those related to professional concerns, accounting for 210 of the 842 subjects (25% of the total number). Among the latter, 28 subjects are related to industrial technology. This sort of extension course may be regarded as one form of the whole-life education system described below. Besides these figures, there are many more extension courses held by private universities and junior colleges not counted in the above figures.
Besides the above mentioned extension lectures, there are many so-called "culture schools" organized by public or private bodies. These schools, together with extension lectures, play important roles in responding to increasing interest by citizens of all ages in acquiring further awareness of human attainments and cultural knowledge. Although these universities or schools usually give lectures without furnishing diplomas or further qualifications to the auditors, there are several systems that enable auditors to acquire certificates of some kind without regular class attendance. Correspondence courses of national or private universities and upper secondary schools (Tsushin Kyoiku), which use mail systems for communication between teachers and students, may be one of the traditional examples.(c) Special Vocational School or Vocational SchoolThe Special Vocational School, or Vocational School (Senshu Gakko or Senmon Gakko), is an example where field specialists can be further educated without gaining academic degrees yet are given further professional qualifications. Most are colleges of private institutions, though a small number of national schools offer such courses. The government financially supports these schools each year to enhance their educational level and meet the growing social interests in the variety of educational systems necessary today, especially with the advent of the advanced information society.(d) The National Institution for Academic Degrees (NIAD)One of the most remarkable recent trends in the higher education system of Japan may be the introduction of a special admission system to schools open for general members of society. This differs from the long-established part-time course in both upper secondary schools and universities for evening branch system courses (night school) which enable students working day jobs to be educated and acquire corresponding academic degrees. In these traditional night-school systems, students are required to apply to the specific school or university.Top of PageIn 1991, however, a new organization called The National Institution for Academic Degrees (NIAD) was established. The main function of NIAD is to award academic degrees to learners other than regular "mainstream" university students. NIAD currently awards two types of degrees:
- ) Bachelor's degrees are awarded to those who have finished junior colleges, colleges of technology, or an equivalent level of education, who then accumulate the required number of university-level credits and successfully pass the NIAD-examination.
- ) Bachelor's, Master's, or Doctoral degrees are awarded to those completing NIAD-approved courses offered by specified institutions and who successfully pass the NIAD-examination.
These new routes for awarding a degree by NIAD are intrinsically based on the credit accumulation system used by the Japanese education system; this means the student may take courses offered by any institution meeting NIAD approval and need not necessarily belong to any specific university to be awarded the degree.
In addition to this new degree-granting system, the Japanese Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture is now encouraging most universities to introduce special graduate courses designed to meet the needs of those working in private-sector companies. To universities, this system requires reserving places for these people, and an admission process different from that applied to the ordinary "mainstream" applicant.
5.1.2 Education by Broadcast
Apart from school education, the most popular means of disseminating chemical education to citizens may be the use of mass media, such as radio and TV. For example, NHK, the national broadcasting corporation, has been telecasting some science programs including chemistry lessons intended for the upper secondary school level through its education channel, which is broadcast to all citizens within reception distance.The University of the Air (Hoso Daigaku), a precedent of which is the British Open University, established in April 1983, is a new distance education system through TV and radio. The aims of the University are:
- ) To provide working people and housewives with the chance for a college education.
- ) To provide an innovative and flexible system of college education open to all upper secondary school graduates.
- ) To cooperate with existing universities and make full use of the latest knowledge and newest educational technology to offer a system of higher education meeting contemporary needs.
The University offers about 300 courses through broadcasting from 6:00 a.m. until midnight each day. Any person over the age of eighteen can officially enroll at the University and take any of these courses at home.
During the decade it has been operating, about 2,700 students have graduated and the current student enrollment is about 41,000. Students who are enrolled for four years or longer and earn the required number of credits receive the Bachelor of Arts degree. The University also admits non-degree students who wish to pursue personal interests. In the specialized courses, chemistry is treated under the title of "Understanding Nature".
The citizens currently enjoying these services are restricted to within the Tokyo metropolis area where FM radio or UHF TV waves from the Tokyo Tower are accessible. Those who wish to have access to the University's broadcast lectures from outside the area can study as non-degree course students by means of video & audio tapes delivered to the 14 Video Study Centers established nationwide. The University plans to air the lectures via satellite broadcasting nationwide in the near future.
In Figs. 5.1 .1 and 5.1.2 the structure of the University of the Air is presented.
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5.1.3 Nationwide Projects and Facilities for Chemistry Awareness
There are 167 science and/or technology museums in Japan established and operated by various communities and they have been playing important roles in the social enlightenment of chemistry. It should be noted that 75 of them have been established since 1980 and the number is still increasing steadily. Among the 167 museums that are members of the National Science Museum Association, 7 are operated by the central government, 83 by local self-governing bodies, the remainder by private organizations. Twenty-three museums (14% of the total) have displays concerning the field of chemistry. Certain recently-launched museums feature various hands-on type demonstrations that are especially attractive to young people; they have been proven effective in demonstrating the practical and theoretical relevance of chemistry to modern industry, science, and technological enhancements to industrial efficiency. In fact, the late Dr. Teiichi Asahina was awarded the Chemical Education Prize by the Chemical Society of Japan in 1978 for his long-standing contributions to the chemical education of young people through his activities advancing science museums and exhibits.Besides the permanent facilities for science exhibitions, the special chemistry exhibitions that take place for a short period, e.g., for a week or a month, are also quite effective in promoting chemistry in particular. The Chemical Society of Japan (CSJ) has administered this sort of event yearly throughout Japan. In 1993, CSJ, in cooperation with Japan Chemical Industry Association (Nippon Kagaku Kogyo Kyokai), The Society of Chemical Engineers, Japan (Kagaku Kogaku-kai), and The Association for the Progress of New Chemistry (Shin Kagaku Hatten Kyokaii), carried on a nationwide campaign promoting chemistry. This "Dreamá Chemistry-21" project of 1993 consisted of: a lecture by Dr. M. Mohri (the first Japanese astronaut), a series of forums, a music concert, an article competition for lower secondary school children, etc. Most events took place during National Chemistry Week, the first week in November.
To stimulate upper secondary school students' interest in chemistry, some universities have recently introduced an "ad hoc university student system" (Taiken Nyugaku Seido). During summer holidays, those University provides a short lecture series to upper secondary school students applying for lectures and/or laboratory work in introductory chemistry. This not only helps to popularize chemistry with younger students, but also causes talented students intrigued by the program to apply to that university later.
5.2 WHOLE-LIFE EDUCATION (SHOGAI KYOIKU) --RECURRENT OR REFRESHMENT EDUCATION SYSTEMS
The recent societal trend of people enjoying a longer life span, as well as the present highly complex and matured social structure, requires continuing efforts to keep abreast of new information and advanced technology. In this regard, the number of those interested in pursuing the whole-life education (the so-called life-long education or adult continuing education) and enhancing their own way of living and intelligence has increased significantly these days. In order to meet this challenge, the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture, has acted to encourage universities, colleges, and upper secondary schools to offer various kinds of whole-life education courses. Some of them may be the Extension Lectures described in section (a) which intend to support those willing to study in their spare time.Top of Page
The Recurrent Education (Rikarento Kyoiku) or the Refresher Education (Rifuresshu Kyoiku), a counterpart to the Extension Lectures for citizens, is another important project in this connection. The Recurrent Education system was originally designated by the OECD as the counterpart to the conventional "front-end type education" and the name was adopted by the Whole-Life Education Bureau of the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture, Japan. Later the Higher Education and Science Bureau named the Refresher Education for the similar project. The main purpose of the Recurrent Education project is to provide research workers or engineers of companies with current specialized knowledge and techniques by accepting them into universities. This is especially important because the refreshing of industrial engineers and technology specialists is required to help to meet the innovations in the globally-competitive private sector and to adopt the rapid progress of advanced and extremely complicated contemporary science. The results expected to flow from the popularization of the Recurrent Education system may be described as follows:In order to carry these projects into effect, a regional council to promote recurrent education was set up in 1991 and began activities with several local self-governing bodies. The evaluation method for the results of the study, namely criteria for a certificate of completion or a certificate of recognition, were to be established in the near future.
- ) The personal-incentive method of studying will take the place of the conventional system-incentive method of studying which will result in the higher efficiency of education and research at educational institutions.
- ) Both higher educational facilities and society will be activated by the addition of industrial people to the traditional educational institutions.
- ) Necessary social needs will be satisfied and thus the principle of equal educational opportunity will be more fully attained.
5.3 PUBLICATIONS RELATED TO CHEMICAL EDUCATION
Books published for primary, junior and senior high school students are roughly classified into two categories; books of the first category are textbooks for classroom and related materials, and those of the second category are books not directly for use in the classroom.Top of Page(a) Textbooks for Classroom
Chemistry textbooks for senior high school students and science textbooks (chemistry is nearly one-fourth of the entire volume though not specifically designated as such) for junior high school have several publishers. The authors are usually a group of university professors and relevant school teachers. Preprint editions of the textbooks are carefully examined by the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture (Kentei; see Ch.2.4). Usually the examiner orders hundreds of corrections and amendments, and authors are expected to follow all the points raised by the examiners. Otherwise approval from the government cannot be obtained. The books can then be published after permission from the government is obtained.
The names of companies which publish the government approved textbooks for science (primary and junior high schools) and chemistry (for senior high schools) are given in Tale 5.3.1.
Table 5.3.1 List of Government-authorized Textbooks (a) Elementary Schools (1),(2)Name of publishers Title Year approved -------------------------------------------------------------------- Tokyo Shoseki New Science 1991 Dainihon Tosho Enjoyable Science 1991 Gakko Tosho Science 1991 Kyoiku Shuppan Science (new edition) 1991 Shinshu Kyoikukai New Science 1991 Keirinkan Science 1991 Gakken Our Science 1991 -------------------------------------------------------------------- (1) These textbooks will be used for the academic years 1992-1995. (2) All of these are in seven volumes. The number of pages of each volume is typically for the textbook by Keirinkan as follows. 3rd year; 100pp. 4th year; No. 1, 60pp; No. 2, 60pp. 5th year; No. 1, 60pp; No. 2, 52pp. 6th year; No. 1, 68pp; No. 2, 60pp. (b) Lower Secondary Schools (1),(2) -------------------------------------------------------------------- Name of publishers Title Year approved ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Tokyo Shoseki New Science 1992 Dainihon Tosho Science 1992 Gakko Tosho Science 1992 Kyoiku Shuppan Science (new edition) 1992 Keirinkan Science 1992 Gakken Our Science 1992 ---------------------------------------------------------------------- (1) These textbooks will be used for the academic years 1993-1996. (2) All of these are in four volumes, two volumes for the First field and two volumes for the Second field. The number of pages of each volume is typically for the textbook by Keirinkan as follows. First field (physics and chemistry); No.1, 124pp;No.2, 124pp. Second field (biology and earth science);No.1, 134pp;No.2, 146pp. (c) Upper Secondary School (1) Chemistry 1A ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Name of publishers Title Year approved ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Tokyo Shoseki The World of Chemistry (1A) 1993 Jikkyo Shuppan Chemistry 1A 1993 Sanseido Chemistry 1A 1993 Keirinkan Chemistry 1A 1993 Daiichi Shuppan Pictorial Chemistry 1A 1993 ---------------------------------------------------------------------- each about 160-180pp (2) Chemistry 1B ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Name of publishers Title Year approved ------------------------------------------------------------------- Tokyo Shoseki Chemistry 1B 1993 Dainihon Tosho Chemistry 1B 1993 Jikkyo Shuppan Chemistry 1B 1993 Jikkyo Shuppan High School Chemistry 1B 1993 Sanseido Chemistry 1B 1993 Keirinkan Chemistry 1B 1993 Keirinkan Standard Chemistry 1B 1993 Suken Shuppan Chemistry 1B 1993 Suken Shuppan Chemistry 1B(New Edition) 1993 Daiichi Shuppan New Chemistry 1B 1993 Daiichi Shuppan Chemistry 1B 1993 ------------------------------------------------------------------- each about 220pp(B5) or 320pp(A5) ------------------------------------------------------------------- (b) Monthly Supplementary Journals for Chemistry Teachers
The new Course of Study for senior high school became effective from April, 1994. Hence, textbooks for 1st year students are based on the new Course of Study while those for 2nd and 3rd year students are based on the previous Course of Study.
For convenience, textbooks based on the new Course of Study are listed. These are at first instance designed for the 1st year students though in many schools students start to study chemistry from the 2nd year.
From 1995 a new kind of textbook (chemistry II) will be published. It is likely that publishers who publish chemistry IA and 1B will also publish chemistry II.
Since textbooks are based on the Course of Study, and the government examination is very strict, there is little difference in the standard, quality, and even the number of pages between various textbooks offered by publishers for each marketFor primary schools and junior high schools, textbook selection cannot be decided by each individual school. Instead, the education committee (kyoiku iinkai) of the local government assigns one textbook to each school district. The size of each school district can vary. For instance, Tokyo is divided into 10 school districts and islands school districts.
For senior high schools, each school can choose the most appropriate books for that school.
It must be added that all the textbooks for primary and junior high school level (i.e., for compulsory education) are distributed free to students. The cost of the books is paid by the government, justifying strict control over contents.
Each company publishing textbooks publishes a monthly pamphlet (10-30 pages on average) to assist teachers using that particular textbook. Usually it contains some supplementary information relevant to the classroom teaching. These booklets are normally free.
(c) Study Books and Drill Books for StudentsThe number of book titles related to chemistry or science learning is extremely large though the corresponding numbers for English, Mathematics and Japanese (Kokugo) are far greater. There are two types; those written to correspond with one particular textbook, and the other prepared for wider use. For primary and junior high school students, reference books (which are more comprehensive than the textbook) and drills are quite popular. At the same time, primary, junior, and senior high school students find those designed specifically to prepare for entrance examinations most popular.
(d) Science Books for Children
There are many private tutorial schools (jyuku) in Japan. Some jyuku attract thousands of students. Textbooks used at some famous Jyuku's are sometimes a best seller among students.There are many published chemistry/science books (not directly relevant to school teaching) for children and young people at various ages. Mostly because of very severe entrance examinations for senior high schools and universities, time spent on reading tends to decrease as one proceeds from primary to junior high school, again from junior to senior high school, and high school to college. So most good science/chemistry books tend to be written for children below the age of ten. There are many books available that were originally written for children of other countries in a different language. Some examples are given in Table 5.3.2.
Table 5.3.2 Example of Science Books for ChildrenTitle Author / Editor Publisher (Year) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Junior Asahi Almanac [Science] ed. by Asahi Shinbun Asahi Shinbun (yearly) Experiments of Sciences (Gakken Picture Book) Y. Ui Gakken (1986) Science books are Interesting! Nos 1-3 Society of Science Rengo Shuppan (1981) Reading Books Suggestions for Free Study of Science ed. Association of of Elementary School Level Science Teaching Study Suggestions for Free Study for Science M. Yoneyama Reimei Shobo (1985) Experiments with a Ball-point pen B.Zubowski Saera Shobo (1984) We found secrets of earthworm A. Shiba Doshinsha (1986) An Interesting Science of a Candle K. Goi Shinsei shupann (1990) Amusing Laboratory of Salts K. Takanashi, M. Handa Saera Shobo (1988) Experiments of Miraculous Water T. Kobayashi Saera Shobo (1985) Study of Dandelion T. Yamamoto Kokudosha (1980) Secrets of Sugars C. Kotake Saera Shobo (1989) Science of a Motor by Faraday C. Kobayashi Saera Shobo (1986) Making a Fire M. Iwaki Ohtsuki Shoten (1983) Science of Popcorn H. Aiba Saera Shobo (1992) Why Fossils are so Interesting K. Baba Saera Shobo (1992) Chemically Active Experiments V. Cobb you can do at Home (translated by C.Fujita) Saera Shobo (1987) Secrets of Eggs T. Kotake Saera Shobo (1987) Secrets of Milk C. Kotake, K. Sasaki Saera Shobo (1988) Secrets of Flour C. Kotake Saera Shobo (1992) Secrets of Rce C. Kotake Saera Shobo (1992) Six Fundamental Laws of Chemistry Y. Takeuchi Iwanami Shoten (1981) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- It must be added that "science books for children" have been a target of many organization or individuals interested in children's education. The Society for Science Books for Children (Kagaku Yomimono Kenkyu Kai) is an example of this kind of organization. Annually a variety of science books for children recommended by the referees were awarded by this organization, though there are not many chemistry books.
(e) Teaching Material for Television ProgramsNHK (Nippon Hoso Kyokai; Japan Broadcasting Corporation) has a variety of regular (mostly weekly) educational programs for all stages of primary and secondary science education, and textbooks are issued for most of these regular programs.
(f) Research Reports by Upper Secondary School Teachers
Printed textbooks and video tapes for science subjects aired on the University of the Air (hoso daigaku) can also be included in this category.Research activities of high school teachers are usually organized by "prefecture". One reason is that there is at least one governmental education center in each prefecture. Reports on the research activities by high school teachers are in most cases published as "annual reports", which contains many useful materials such as suggestions for improving classroom demonstrations, and reports of activities of students "science clubs".